History
The earliest known examples of toast racks date from the 1770's. They have been made in large quantities since then and are still being made today.
Design
The toast rack's design and shape follows prevailing fashion. The dividers were often made from silver wires and these in-turn were soldered to either a wire-work or solid base that sat on four feet. Sometimes the base is separate and was used to dispose of any crumbs that fell. Some ingenious designs were made including expanding or folding types (so as to take up less space). Others had incorporated egg-cups or receptacles for jam or marmalade.
A designer renowned for his innovative take on the toast rack was Christopher Dresser (1834 - 1904), who studied at the Government School of Design in Glasgow from the age of 13 and is widely thought of as the 'father of modern design'.
Modern designs are often made from stamped and folded stainless steel sheet or from welded stainless wire.
Manchester Metropolitan University's Fallowfield Campus main building is often referred to as "The Toast Rack", due to its resemblance to the said device. An affluent block of streets in South West London (SW18) is referred to as "The Toast Rack" by many estate agents, based on what it looks like
2008年11月22日星期六
Dictation machine
History
Dictaphone was cylinder dictation machine from early 1920s.
Transcribing dictation with a Dictaphone wax cylinder dictation machine, in the early 1920s.
Shortly after Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, the first device for recording sound, in 1877, he thought that the main use for the new device would be for recording speech in business settings. (Given the low audio fidelity of earliest versions of the phonograph, recording music may not have seemed to be a major application.) Some early phonographs were indeed used this way, but this did not become common until the mass production of reusable wax cylinders in the late 1880s. The differentiation of office dictation devices from other early phonographs (which commonly had attachments for making one's own recordings) was gradual. The machine marketed by the Edison Records company was trademarked as the "Ediphone".
Electric microphones generally replaced the strictly acoustical recording methods of earlier dictaphones by the late 1930s. In 1945, the SoundScriber and Gray Audograph, which cut grooves into a plastic disc, was introduced, and two years later Dictaphone replaced wax cylinders with their DictaBelt technology, which cut a mechanical groove into a plastic belt instead of into a wax cylinder. This was later replaced by magnetic tape recording. While reel-to-reel tape was used for dictation, the inconvenience of threading tape spools led to development of more convenient formats, notably the Compact Cassette, Mini Cassette, and Microcassette.
A Sony Mini Cassette dictation recorder.
An Olympus digital voice recorder
Digital dictation became possible in the 1990s as falling computer memory prices made portable voice recording devices affordable. In the 1990s, improvements in voice recognition technology allowed some dictation to be made via computer, although as of 2007 the technology is not robust enough to replace human transcription in most cases.
Despite the advances in technology, analog media are still widely used in dictation recording for their flexibility, permanence, and robustness.
Dictaphone was cylinder dictation machine from early 1920s.
Transcribing dictation with a Dictaphone wax cylinder dictation machine, in the early 1920s.
Shortly after Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, the first device for recording sound, in 1877, he thought that the main use for the new device would be for recording speech in business settings. (Given the low audio fidelity of earliest versions of the phonograph, recording music may not have seemed to be a major application.) Some early phonographs were indeed used this way, but this did not become common until the mass production of reusable wax cylinders in the late 1880s. The differentiation of office dictation devices from other early phonographs (which commonly had attachments for making one's own recordings) was gradual. The machine marketed by the Edison Records company was trademarked as the "Ediphone".
Electric microphones generally replaced the strictly acoustical recording methods of earlier dictaphones by the late 1930s. In 1945, the SoundScriber and Gray Audograph, which cut grooves into a plastic disc, was introduced, and two years later Dictaphone replaced wax cylinders with their DictaBelt technology, which cut a mechanical groove into a plastic belt instead of into a wax cylinder. This was later replaced by magnetic tape recording. While reel-to-reel tape was used for dictation, the inconvenience of threading tape spools led to development of more convenient formats, notably the Compact Cassette, Mini Cassette, and Microcassette.
A Sony Mini Cassette dictation recorder.
An Olympus digital voice recorder
Digital dictation became possible in the 1990s as falling computer memory prices made portable voice recording devices affordable. In the 1990s, improvements in voice recognition technology allowed some dictation to be made via computer, although as of 2007 the technology is not robust enough to replace human transcription in most cases.
Despite the advances in technology, analog media are still widely used in dictation recording for their flexibility, permanence, and robustness.
Tanagra figurine
The Tanagra figurines were a mold-cast type of Greek terracotta figurines produced from the later fourth century BCE, primarily in the Boeotian town of Tanagra. They were coated with a liquid white slip before firing and were sometimes painted afterwards in naturalistic tints with watercolors, such as the famous "Dame en Bleu" ("Lady in Blue") at the Louvre (illustration). Scientists wonder why a rural place like Tanagra has produced such fine and rather "urban" style terracotta figures.
Tanagra figures depict real women — and some men and boys — in everyday costume, with familiar accessories like hats, wreaths or fans. Some character piece may have represented stock figures from the New Comedy of Menander and other writers. Others continued an earlier tradition of molded terracotta figures used as cult images or votive objects. Typically they are about 4 to 8 inches high.
The coraplasters, or sculptors of the models that provided the molds, delighted in revealing the body under the folds of a himation thrown round the shoulders like a cloak and covering the head, over a chiton, and the movements of such drapery in action.
Discovery
Tanagra figures had not been much noted before the end of the 1860s, when ploughmen of Vratsi in Boeotia, Greece, began to uncover tombs ranging in date over many centuries. The main finds especially from the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE were secured in 1874. Inside and outside the tombs of the Hellenistic period — 3rd to 1st centuries BCE — were many small terracotta figures. Great quantities that were found in excavation sites at Tanagra identified the city as the source of these figures, which were also exported to distant markets. In addition, such figures were made in many other Mediterranean sites, including Alexandria, Tarentum in Magna Graecia, Centuripe in Sicily and Myrina in Mysia.
The figures appealed to 19th century middle-class ideals of realism, and "Tanagra figures" entered the visual repertory of Europeans. Jean-Léon Gérôme created a polychromatic sculpture depicting the spirit of Tanagra, and one French critic described the fashionable women portrayed in the statuettes as "the parisienne of the ancient world".Oscar Wilde in his play An Ideal Husband (1895), introduces the character of Mabel Chiltern with (amongst further description) "she is really like a Tanagra statuette, and would be rather annoyed if she were told so." Under the pressure of collectors' demands, Tanagra terracottas began to be faked
Olmec figurine
Baby-face figurines
The "baby-face" figurine is a unique marker of Olmec culture. These small hollow ceramic figurines are easily recognized by the chubby body, the baby-like jowly face, downturned mouth, and the puffy slit-like eyes. The head is slightly pear-shaped, likely due to artificial cranial deformation.These genderless figurines often wear a tight-fitting helmet not dissimilar to those worn by the Olmec colossal heads.
The bodies are generally not rendered with the detail shown on the face. They are usually naked, without genitalia.
The figurines are hollow, ceramic, usually white-slipped, and have been consistently found in sites that show Olmec influence. Given the sheer numbers of baby-face figurines unearthed, they undoubtedly fulfilled some special role in the Olmec culture. What they represented, however, is not known.
Some hollow-ware figurines combine the seated, pudgy "baby-face" body with a stylized adult head. See also this Commons photo.
An "elongated man" figurine, dark green serpentine.
Elongated man
Another common figurine style features standing figurines in a stiff artificial pose and characterized by their thin limbs, elongated, bald, flat-topped heads, almond-shaped eyes, and downturned mouths. The figurines' legs are usually separated, often straight, sometimes bent. Toes and fingers, if shown at all, are frequently represented by lines.
It has been theorized that the elongated, flat-topped heads are reflective of the practice of artificial cranial deformation, as found in the Tlatilco burials of the same period or among the Maya of a later era.No direct evidence of this practice has been found in the Olmec heartland, however.
The ears often have small holes for ear flares or other ornaments. These figurines may have therefore once worn earrings and even clothes made of perishable materials. It has been proposed that these figurines had multiple outfits for different ritual occasions – as Richard Diehl puts it, "a pre-Columbian version of Barbie's Ken".These figurines are usually carved from jade and well under 1 ft (30 cm) in height. For another example, see this Commons photo.
Offering 4 at La Venta
At the La Venta archaeological site, archaeologists found what they subsequently named Offering 4. These figurines had been ritually buried in a deep, narrow hole, and covered over with three layers of colored clay. At some point after the original burial, someone dug a small hole down just to the level of their heads and then refilled it.
Offering 4 consists of sixteen male figurines positioned in a semi-circle in front of six jade celts, perhaps representing stelae or basalt columns. Two of the figurines were made from jade, thirteen from serpentine, and one of reddish granite. This granite figurine one was positioned with its back to the celts, facing the others. All of the figurines had similar classic Olmec features including bald elongated heads. They had small holes for earrings, their legs were slightly bent, and they were undecorated - unusual if the figurines were gods or deities – but instead covered with cinnabar.
Interpretations abound. Perhaps this particular formation represents a council of some sort -- the fifteen other figurines seem to be listening to the red granite one, with the celts forming a backdrop. To the red granite figurine's right, there seems be a line of three figurines filing past him. Another researcher has suggested that the granite figure is an initiate.
As the name implies, Offering 4 is one of many ritual offerings uncovered at La Venta, including the four Massive Offerings and four mosaics. Why such works would be buried continues to generate much speculation.
A small jade were-jaguar figurine. Stand-alone were-jaguar figurines are rare - most were-jaguar figurines show a were-jaguar baby accompanied by a human adult. Height: 8.6 cm (3.4 in).
"Were-jaguar" motif
The so-called were-jaguar motif runs through much of Olmec art, from the smallest jade to the some of the largest basalt statues. The motif is found inscribed on celts, votive axes, masks, and on "elongated man" figurines.
Also termed, somewhat more neutrally, the "composite anthropomorph"or the "rain baby",the were-jaguar's body, if shown, is baby- or child-like. Its eyes are almond-shaped - or occasionally slit-like.Its nose is human. Its downturned mouth is open, as if in mid-squall. The upper lip is everted and toothless gums are often visible. Olmec motifs associated with the were-jaguar include a cleft on the head or headdress, a headband, and cross-bars.
Most were-jaguar figurines show an inert were-jaguar baby being held by a adult.
Olmec eagle transformation figure, 10th–6th century B.C. Jade (albite), with cinnabar. Height: 4.5 in. (11.4 cm).
Transformation figures
Many other Olmec figurines combined human and animal features, including this were-eagle (left). Although figurines showing such combinations of features are generally termed "transformation figures", some researchers argue that they represent humans in animal masks or animal suits, while others state that they likely represent shamans.
This transformation figure, from FAMSI, displays bat features. Most common, however, is the jaguar transformation figurine (see Commons photo), which show a wide variety of styles, ranging from human-like figurines to those that are almost completely jaguar, and several where the subject appears to be in a stage of transformation.
Naturalistic figurines
Despite the many stylised figurines, Olmec-period artisans and artist also portrayed humans naturalistically with "a most extraordinary realistic technique.The lead photo for this article shows a number of tiny naturalistic figurines.
A jade fetal-style figurine from Guerrero, Mexico. Height: 3.8 in (9.5 cm).
Dwarf or fetal-style figurines
Another pervasive Olmec figurine type features crouching figurines with thin bodies and over-large oval heads with small noses and receding chins.Some researchers such as Miguel Covarrubias generally characterise these figurines as "dwarfs". many others, also including Covarrubias, see evidence of "what looks like pre-natal posture".In a 1999 article, Carolyn Tate and Gordon Bendersky analysed head-to-body ratios and concluded that these figurines are naturalistic sculptures of fetuses, and discuss the possibility of infanticide and infant sacrifice
Venus figurines
History of discovery
The Venus of Brassempouy
The first Upper Paleolithic representation of a woman was discovered about 1864 by the Marquis de Vibraye, at Laugerie-Basse (Dordogne), where initial archaeological surveys had already been undertaken; Vibraye named his find the Vénus impudique, a knowing contrast to the "modest" Venus Pudica Hellenistic type, the most famous of which is the Medici Venus. The Magdalenian "Venus" from Laugerie-Basse is headless, footless, armless but with a strongly incised vaginal opening.Another example of such a figure being discovered and recognised was the Venus of Brassempouy, found by Édouard Piette in 1894 (but not originally labelled as a "Venus"). Four years later, Salomon Reinach published a group of steatite figurines from the caves of Balzi Rossi. The famous Venus of Willendorf was excavated in 1908 in a loess deposit in the Danube valley, Austria. Since then, hundreds of similar figurines have been discovered from the Pyrenees to the plains of Siberia. They are collectively described as "Venus" figurines in reference to the Roman goddess of beauty, Venus, since the prehistorians of the early 20th century assumed they represented an ancient ideal of beauty. Early discourse on "Venus" figurines was preoccupied with identifing the race being represented; and the steatopygous fascination of Sartje Baartman, the "Hottentot Venus" exhibited as a living ethnographic curiosity to connoisseurs in Paris early in the nineteenth century.
Description
The majority of the Venus figurines appear to be depictions of females that follow certain artistic conventions, on the lines of schematisation and stylisation. Most of them are roughly lozenge-shaped, with two tapering terminals at top (head) and bottom (legs) and the widest point in the middle (hips/belly). In some examples, certain parts of the human anatomy are exaggerated: abdomen, hips, breasts, thighs, vulva. In contrast, other anatomical details are neglected or absent, especially arms and feet. The heads are often of relatively small size and devoid of detail.
The question of the steatopygia of some of the figurines has led to numerous controversies. The issue was first raised by Édouard Piette, excavator of the Brassempouy figure and of several other examples from the Pyrenees. Some authors saw this feature as the depiction of an actual physical property, resembling the Khoisan tribe of southern Africa, while others interpreted it as a symbol of fertility and abundance. It must be noted in this context, that not all Palaeolithic female figurines are rotund or have exaggerated feminine features. Also, not all are devoid of facial features.
The Venus of Willendorf and the Venus of Laussel bear traces of having been externally covered in red ochre. The significance of this is not clear, but is normally assumed to be religious or ritual in nature -- perhaps symbolic of the blood of menstruation or childbirth.
All generally accepted Paleolithic female figurines are from the Upper Palaeolithic. Although they were originally mostly considered Aurignacian, the majority is now associated with the Gravettian and Solutrean. In these periods, the more rotund figurines are predominant. During the Magdalenian, the forms become finer with more detail; conventional stylization also develops.
Figurine
A figurine (a diminutive form of the word figure) is a statuette that represents a human, deity, or animal. Figurines may be realistic or iconic, depending on the skill and intention of the creator. The earliest were made of stone or clay. Modern versions are made of ceramic, metal, glass, wood and plastic.
Figurines and miniatures are sometimes used in board games, such as chess, and tabletop role playing games. Figures with movable parts, allowing limbs to be posed, are more likely to be called dolls, mannequins, or action figures; or robots or automata, if they can move on their own.
Old figurines have been used to discount some historical theories, such as the origins of chess.
Porcelain is considered the finest of materials for figurines and other ceramics. There are many early examples from China where it originated, which drove the experimentation in Europe to replicate the process. The first European porcelain figurines, produced in a process mastered in Germany were known as Meissen ware after the city where it began. Soon the technique was copied in other cities, such as the one depicted to the right from Dresden.
The terms inaction figures (originally used to describe Kevin Smith's View Askew figurines) and staction figures (a portmanteau of statue and action figures coined by Four Horsemen artists to describe Masters of the Universe figures) have been used to refer to figurines of comic book or sci-fi/fantasy characters without movable parts.
Figurines and miniatures are sometimes used in board games, such as chess, and tabletop role playing games. Figures with movable parts, allowing limbs to be posed, are more likely to be called dolls, mannequins, or action figures; or robots or automata, if they can move on their own.
Old figurines have been used to discount some historical theories, such as the origins of chess.
Porcelain is considered the finest of materials for figurines and other ceramics. There are many early examples from China where it originated, which drove the experimentation in Europe to replicate the process. The first European porcelain figurines, produced in a process mastered in Germany were known as Meissen ware after the city where it began. Soon the technique was copied in other cities, such as the one depicted to the right from Dresden.
The terms inaction figures (originally used to describe Kevin Smith's View Askew figurines) and staction figures (a portmanteau of statue and action figures coined by Four Horsemen artists to describe Masters of the Universe figures) have been used to refer to figurines of comic book or sci-fi/fantasy characters without movable parts.
Prehistory
In China, there are extant Neolithic figurines.Prehistoric figurines of pregnant women are called Venus figurines, because of their presumed representation of a female goddess, or some connection to fertility. The two oldest known examples are made of stone, were found in Africa and Asia, and are several hundred thousand years old. Many made of fired clay have been found in Europe that date to 25-30,000 BC, and are the oldest ceramics known.
In Minoan Crete terracotta figurines manifesting facial detail have been recovered from the Iron Age strata.
These early figurines are among the first signs of human culture. One cannot know in some cases how they were used. They probably had religious or ceremonial significance and may have been used in many types of rituals. Many are found in burials. Some may have been worn as jewelry or intended to amuse children.
In China, there are extant Neolithic figurines.Prehistoric figurines of pregnant women are called Venus figurines, because of their presumed representation of a female goddess, or some connection to fertility. The two oldest known examples are made of stone, were found in Africa and Asia, and are several hundred thousand years old. Many made of fired clay have been found in Europe that date to 25-30,000 BC, and are the oldest ceramics known.
In Minoan Crete terracotta figurines manifesting facial detail have been recovered from the Iron Age strata.
These early figurines are among the first signs of human culture. One cannot know in some cases how they were used. They probably had religious or ceremonial significance and may have been used in many types of rituals. Many are found in burials. Some may have been worn as jewelry or intended to amuse children.
Picnic
Etymology
Hunt Picnic by François Lemoyne, 1723
The first usage of the word is traced to the 1692 edition of Origines de la Langue Française de Ménage—which mentions 'pique-nique' as being of recent origin; it marks the first appearance of the word in print. The term was used to describe a group of people dining in a restaurant who brought their own wine. For long a picnic retained the connotation of a meal to which everyone contributed something. Whether picnic is actually based on the verb piquer which means 'pick' or 'peck' with the rhyming nique meaning "thing of little importance" is doubted; the Oxford English Dictionary says it is of unknown provenance.
The word picnic first appeared in English texts in 1748 (OED), and may have entered the English language from this French word or from the German Picknick, which may simply be a parallel borrowing from French. The practice of an elegant meal eaten out-of-doors, rather than a harvester worker's dinner in the harvest field, was connected with respite from hunting from the Middle Ages; the excuse for the pleasurable outing of 1723 in Lemoyne's painting (illustration, left) is still offered in the context of a hunt.
Usage
A typical picnic setup on the ground with picnic basket and red plaid sheet.
In British and American English, the phrase "no picnic" is used to describe a difficult or trying situation or activity. For example, "Driving in rush hour traffic is no picnic."
In established public parks, a picnic area generally includes picnic tables and possibly other items related to eating outdoors, such as built-in grills, water faucets, garbage containers, and restrooms.
Related historical events
After the French Revolution in 1789, royal parks became open to the public for the first time. Picnicking in the parks became a popular activity amongst the newly enfranchised citizens.
Early in the 19th century, a fashionable group of Londoners formed the 'Picnic Society'. Members met in the Pantheon on Oxford Street. Each member was expected to provide a share of the entertainment and of the refreshments with no one particular host. Interest in the society waned in the 1850s as the founders died.
A picnic in front of the Orangerie Kassel, Germany, c. 2003
The image of picnics as a peaceful social activity can be utilised for political protest too. In this context, a picnic functions as a temporary occupation of significant public territory. A famous example of this is the Pan-European Picnic held on both sides of the Hungarian / Austrian border on the 19 August 1989 as part of the struggle towards German reunification.
In the year 2000, a 600-mile-long picnic took place from coast to coast in France to celebrate the first Bastille Day of the new Millennium. In the United States, likewise, the 4th of July celebration of American independence is a popular day for a picnic. In Italy the favourite picnic day is 'Angel's Monday', also known as Pasquetta (= 'little easter'), the day after Easter.
Hunt Picnic by François Lemoyne, 1723
The first usage of the word is traced to the 1692 edition of Origines de la Langue Française de Ménage—which mentions 'pique-nique' as being of recent origin; it marks the first appearance of the word in print. The term was used to describe a group of people dining in a restaurant who brought their own wine. For long a picnic retained the connotation of a meal to which everyone contributed something. Whether picnic is actually based on the verb piquer which means 'pick' or 'peck' with the rhyming nique meaning "thing of little importance" is doubted; the Oxford English Dictionary says it is of unknown provenance.
The word picnic first appeared in English texts in 1748 (OED), and may have entered the English language from this French word or from the German Picknick, which may simply be a parallel borrowing from French. The practice of an elegant meal eaten out-of-doors, rather than a harvester worker's dinner in the harvest field, was connected with respite from hunting from the Middle Ages; the excuse for the pleasurable outing of 1723 in Lemoyne's painting (illustration, left) is still offered in the context of a hunt.
Usage
A typical picnic setup on the ground with picnic basket and red plaid sheet.
In British and American English, the phrase "no picnic" is used to describe a difficult or trying situation or activity. For example, "Driving in rush hour traffic is no picnic."
In established public parks, a picnic area generally includes picnic tables and possibly other items related to eating outdoors, such as built-in grills, water faucets, garbage containers, and restrooms.
Related historical events
After the French Revolution in 1789, royal parks became open to the public for the first time. Picnicking in the parks became a popular activity amongst the newly enfranchised citizens.
Early in the 19th century, a fashionable group of Londoners formed the 'Picnic Society'. Members met in the Pantheon on Oxford Street. Each member was expected to provide a share of the entertainment and of the refreshments with no one particular host. Interest in the society waned in the 1850s as the founders died.
A picnic in front of the Orangerie Kassel, Germany, c. 2003
The image of picnics as a peaceful social activity can be utilised for political protest too. In this context, a picnic functions as a temporary occupation of significant public territory. A famous example of this is the Pan-European Picnic held on both sides of the Hungarian / Austrian border on the 19 August 1989 as part of the struggle towards German reunification.
In the year 2000, a 600-mile-long picnic took place from coast to coast in France to celebrate the first Bastille Day of the new Millennium. In the United States, likewise, the 4th of July celebration of American independence is a popular day for a picnic. In Italy the favourite picnic day is 'Angel's Monday', also known as Pasquetta (= 'little easter'), the day after Easter.
Greek terracotta figurines
Techniques of Manufacture
Modelling
Woman with raised arms, typical funerary offering, Cyprus, 7th century BC, Louvre
Modelling is the most common and simplest technique. It is also used for the realization of bronzes: the prototypes are made out of raw clay. The small sizes are directly worked with the hand. For the larger models, the coroplath (or κοροπλάθος/ koropláthos, manufacturer of figurines) presses the clay pellets or wads against a wooden restraint.
Moulding
Plaster key mold for the reverse side of a figurine of Demeter-Isis, Louvre
The mould is obtained by application of a bed of clay or plaster on the prototype. Simple moulds, used by the Greeks of the continent until 4th century BC, are simply dried. Bivalvular moulds, borrowed by the insular Greeks from Egyptians, require cutting to obtain an obverse and a reverse, with which “keys” are sometimes associated—protuberances allowing the two parts to fit better. When the piece becomes complicated, with important projections (arm, legs, head, clothing), the craftsman can cut out the mould in smaller parts. The piece is then dried.
The second phase consists in applying a layer of raw clay inside the mould, which can be beforehand incised in order to obtain effects of relief. The thinness of the layer varies according to the type of object to be realized. The faces of the mould are joined together, the object is then unmoulded and the craftsman can proceed to the final improvements, typically smoothing the junction. The craftsman also creates a small opening, a vent hole that allows steam to escape during the firing. The vent can also be used for assembly, allowing intervention inside the piece. The limbs are then joined to the body either by pasting them with barbotine (clay mixed with water), or by mortice and tenon joint.
Firing and completion
The piece is then fired in the kiln, temperature ranging from 600 to 800 °C. The kiln used is the same as the potters'. Once the figurine is fired, slip can be applied. The slip is sometimes itself fired at low temperature. In the beginning, the range of colors available is rather reduced: red, yellow, black and blue. From the Hellenistic era on, orange, pink mauve, and green are added to that repertoire. The pigments are natural mineral dyes: ochre for yellow and red, coal for black, malachite for green, etc.
Religious Functions
Woman bearing offerings, archaic figurine from Peloponnese, Louvre
Thanks to their low cost, the figurines make perfect religious offerings. That is indeed their primary purpose, the decorative aspect coming only later. This explains why the Greek temples host abundant quantities of votive or funerary figurines, and why there is almost no document written on their subject. These figurines can present identification issues. Admittedly, the attributes make it possible to recognize such or such god in an unquestionable way, such as the bow for Artemis. Moreover, certain types of statuettes correspond to a precise form of worship related to a specific divinity. Sometimes however, “visiting gods” complicate matters: these are figurines dedicated to a god who is not of that sanctuary. In addition, the great majority of the figurines represent simply a woman upright, without attribute. These latter figurines are offered in all sanctuaries, independently of the divinity.
The gift of figurines accompanies every moment of life. During pregnancy, future mothers will have had care to offer a figurine to Ilithyia, goddess of childbirth: the statuette represents a woman squatting, in full work, according to the Eastern practice. Certain statuettes include a small cavity intended to receive smaller figurines, representative of their babies. At the time of the early childhood, one gives figurines of squatting children—a representation of Eastern origin, arrived in Greece via Rhodes and Cyprus. The so-called “temple boys” seem to protect the children. Similar representations are also found in tombs. These figurines are of variable size, perhaps to indicate the age of the dead child. Indeed, the habit is to bury the dead accompanied by objects of daily custom: jewels, combs, figurines for the women; weapons and strigils for the men; figurines and toys for the children. Figurines are often voluntarily broken before being placed in the tomb.
The terra cotta figurines are often purchased at the entry of the sanctuary. They are the offerings of the common people, who cannot afford to dedicate more valuable objects. They are also used to replace offerings in kind, like animals or food. One places them on the benches of the temples or close to the cult statue. One can also deposit them in places of worship outdoors: Socrates recognizes a sacred spring on seeing figurines on the ground (Phaedrus 230B). One dedicates figurines to ask favours from a god as well as to thank him. When the figurines are too numerous in a temple, they are thrown in a “sacred dump”. In that case, they are frequently broken to avoid recovery.
Modelling
Woman with raised arms, typical funerary offering, Cyprus, 7th century BC, Louvre
Modelling is the most common and simplest technique. It is also used for the realization of bronzes: the prototypes are made out of raw clay. The small sizes are directly worked with the hand. For the larger models, the coroplath (or κοροπλάθος/ koropláthos, manufacturer of figurines) presses the clay pellets or wads against a wooden restraint.
Moulding
Plaster key mold for the reverse side of a figurine of Demeter-Isis, Louvre
The mould is obtained by application of a bed of clay or plaster on the prototype. Simple moulds, used by the Greeks of the continent until 4th century BC, are simply dried. Bivalvular moulds, borrowed by the insular Greeks from Egyptians, require cutting to obtain an obverse and a reverse, with which “keys” are sometimes associated—protuberances allowing the two parts to fit better. When the piece becomes complicated, with important projections (arm, legs, head, clothing), the craftsman can cut out the mould in smaller parts. The piece is then dried.
The second phase consists in applying a layer of raw clay inside the mould, which can be beforehand incised in order to obtain effects of relief. The thinness of the layer varies according to the type of object to be realized. The faces of the mould are joined together, the object is then unmoulded and the craftsman can proceed to the final improvements, typically smoothing the junction. The craftsman also creates a small opening, a vent hole that allows steam to escape during the firing. The vent can also be used for assembly, allowing intervention inside the piece. The limbs are then joined to the body either by pasting them with barbotine (clay mixed with water), or by mortice and tenon joint.
Firing and completion
The piece is then fired in the kiln, temperature ranging from 600 to 800 °C. The kiln used is the same as the potters'. Once the figurine is fired, slip can be applied. The slip is sometimes itself fired at low temperature. In the beginning, the range of colors available is rather reduced: red, yellow, black and blue. From the Hellenistic era on, orange, pink mauve, and green are added to that repertoire. The pigments are natural mineral dyes: ochre for yellow and red, coal for black, malachite for green, etc.
Religious Functions
Woman bearing offerings, archaic figurine from Peloponnese, Louvre
Thanks to their low cost, the figurines make perfect religious offerings. That is indeed their primary purpose, the decorative aspect coming only later. This explains why the Greek temples host abundant quantities of votive or funerary figurines, and why there is almost no document written on their subject. These figurines can present identification issues. Admittedly, the attributes make it possible to recognize such or such god in an unquestionable way, such as the bow for Artemis. Moreover, certain types of statuettes correspond to a precise form of worship related to a specific divinity. Sometimes however, “visiting gods” complicate matters: these are figurines dedicated to a god who is not of that sanctuary. In addition, the great majority of the figurines represent simply a woman upright, without attribute. These latter figurines are offered in all sanctuaries, independently of the divinity.
The gift of figurines accompanies every moment of life. During pregnancy, future mothers will have had care to offer a figurine to Ilithyia, goddess of childbirth: the statuette represents a woman squatting, in full work, according to the Eastern practice. Certain statuettes include a small cavity intended to receive smaller figurines, representative of their babies. At the time of the early childhood, one gives figurines of squatting children—a representation of Eastern origin, arrived in Greece via Rhodes and Cyprus. The so-called “temple boys” seem to protect the children. Similar representations are also found in tombs. These figurines are of variable size, perhaps to indicate the age of the dead child. Indeed, the habit is to bury the dead accompanied by objects of daily custom: jewels, combs, figurines for the women; weapons and strigils for the men; figurines and toys for the children. Figurines are often voluntarily broken before being placed in the tomb.
The terra cotta figurines are often purchased at the entry of the sanctuary. They are the offerings of the common people, who cannot afford to dedicate more valuable objects. They are also used to replace offerings in kind, like animals or food. One places them on the benches of the temples or close to the cult statue. One can also deposit them in places of worship outdoors: Socrates recognizes a sacred spring on seeing figurines on the ground (Phaedrus 230B). One dedicates figurines to ask favours from a god as well as to thank him. When the figurines are too numerous in a temple, they are thrown in a “sacred dump”. In that case, they are frequently broken to avoid recovery.
Shopping cart
Design
Shopping carts of different types
Nested carts being returned from parking lot to store
A child-driveable shopping cart in Japan
A shopping cart monster truck
Almost all shopping carts are made of metal or plastic and designed to nest within each other in a line to facilitate moving many at one time, and to save on storage space. The carts can come in many sizes, with larger ones able to carry a child. There are also specialized carts designed for two children, and electric mobility scooters with baskets designed for disabled customers. 24,000 children are injured each year in shopping carts according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Some stores have child carts that look like a car or van with a seat where a child can sit. Such "Car-Carts" or "Beans", as some call them in the cart business, may offer protection and convenience by keeping the child restrained, lower to the ground, protected from falling items, and amused.
Shopping carts are usually fitted with four caster wheels which can point in any direction to allow maneuvering. However, when any one wheel jams, the cart can become difficult to handle. Many carts only have swivel caster wheels on the front, while the rear ones are on a fixed axle.
An alternative to the shopping cart is a small handheld shopping basket. A customer may prefer a basket for a small amount of merchandise. Small shops, where carts would be impractical, often supply only baskets. A collapsible utility cart has a basket pivotally mounted to a forward facing, C-shaped cart frame. As the lower portion of the C-shaped cart frame is moved under a flat bed (station wagon, etc), the upper part containing the basket slides onto the truck bed. The frame is then pivoted upward around the truck bumper and about the basket and conveniently stored around the basket. U.S. Patent 5,503,424 details this invention, which is marketed as Autocarts.
Often there is the problem of theft of shopping carts by pedestrian customers who use them to carry items home. See Theft Prevention below.
History
Although recent historical investigations have provided evidence of multiple innovations and controversies between early contributors to the invention of the shopping cart, it is usually considered that the "first" shopping cart was introduced on June 4, 1937, the invention of Sylvan Goldman, owner of the Humpty Dumpty supermarket chain in Oklahoma City. With the assistance of Fred Young, a mechanic, Goldman constructed the first shopping cart, basing his design on that of a wooden folding chair. They built it with a metal frame and added wheels and wire baskets. Another mechanic, Arthur Kosted, developed a method to mass produce the carts by inventing an assembly line capable of forming and welding the wire. The cart was awarded patent number 2,196,914 on April 9, 1940 (Filing date: March 14, 1938), titled, "Folding Basket Carriage for Self-Service Stores". They advertised the invention as part of a new “No Basket Carrying Plan.”
The invention did not catch on immediately. Men found them effeminate; women found them suggestive of a baby carriage. "I've pushed my last baby buggy," an offended woman informed him. After hiring several male and female models to push his new invention around his store and demonstrate their utility, as well as greeters to explain their use, shopping carts became extremely popular and Goldman became a multimillionaire. Goldman continued to make modifications to his original design, and the basket size of the shopping cart increased as stores realized that their customers purchased more as its size increased. Today, most big-box stores and supermarkets have shopping carts for the convenience of the shoppers.
Rental
Shopping trolleys locked with a chain
In many countries, the customer has to pay a small deposit by inserting a coin, which is returned if and when the customer returns the cart to a designated cart parking point. The motivation behind the deposit systems is not theft deterrent since the trolley is worth significantly more than the deposit, however through this fee the retailer seeks to reduce the expense of their employees having to gather the carts that were not returned, and to avoid damages by runaway trolleys.
Although common in Europe, the deposit system has not been widely adopted in the United States, with the exception of some chains like Aldi, who require a $0.25 deposit.
The deposit varies, but usually coins of higher value, such as €1 or £1 are used. While the deposit systems usually are designed to accommodate a certain size of domestic coin, foreign coins, former currencies (like DM coins) or even appropriately folded pieces of cardboard can be used to unlock the trolleys as well.
Some retailers sell "trolley tokens" as an alternative to coins, often for charity.
A system similar to the shopping trolley deposit is also used for profit with luggage carts at many airports, where companies like Smarte Carte charge two or more dollars (U.S.) (or equivalent) for rental, and return a small token reward of a quarter (25 ¢) for returning carts to the other end of any dispenser machine.
Shopping carts of different types
Nested carts being returned from parking lot to store
A child-driveable shopping cart in Japan
A shopping cart monster truck
Almost all shopping carts are made of metal or plastic and designed to nest within each other in a line to facilitate moving many at one time, and to save on storage space. The carts can come in many sizes, with larger ones able to carry a child. There are also specialized carts designed for two children, and electric mobility scooters with baskets designed for disabled customers. 24,000 children are injured each year in shopping carts according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Some stores have child carts that look like a car or van with a seat where a child can sit. Such "Car-Carts" or "Beans", as some call them in the cart business, may offer protection and convenience by keeping the child restrained, lower to the ground, protected from falling items, and amused.
Shopping carts are usually fitted with four caster wheels which can point in any direction to allow maneuvering. However, when any one wheel jams, the cart can become difficult to handle. Many carts only have swivel caster wheels on the front, while the rear ones are on a fixed axle.
An alternative to the shopping cart is a small handheld shopping basket. A customer may prefer a basket for a small amount of merchandise. Small shops, where carts would be impractical, often supply only baskets. A collapsible utility cart has a basket pivotally mounted to a forward facing, C-shaped cart frame. As the lower portion of the C-shaped cart frame is moved under a flat bed (station wagon, etc), the upper part containing the basket slides onto the truck bed. The frame is then pivoted upward around the truck bumper and about the basket and conveniently stored around the basket. U.S. Patent 5,503,424 details this invention, which is marketed as Autocarts.
Often there is the problem of theft of shopping carts by pedestrian customers who use them to carry items home. See Theft Prevention below.
History
Although recent historical investigations have provided evidence of multiple innovations and controversies between early contributors to the invention of the shopping cart, it is usually considered that the "first" shopping cart was introduced on June 4, 1937, the invention of Sylvan Goldman, owner of the Humpty Dumpty supermarket chain in Oklahoma City. With the assistance of Fred Young, a mechanic, Goldman constructed the first shopping cart, basing his design on that of a wooden folding chair. They built it with a metal frame and added wheels and wire baskets. Another mechanic, Arthur Kosted, developed a method to mass produce the carts by inventing an assembly line capable of forming and welding the wire. The cart was awarded patent number 2,196,914 on April 9, 1940 (Filing date: March 14, 1938), titled, "Folding Basket Carriage for Self-Service Stores". They advertised the invention as part of a new “No Basket Carrying Plan.”
The invention did not catch on immediately. Men found them effeminate; women found them suggestive of a baby carriage. "I've pushed my last baby buggy," an offended woman informed him. After hiring several male and female models to push his new invention around his store and demonstrate their utility, as well as greeters to explain their use, shopping carts became extremely popular and Goldman became a multimillionaire. Goldman continued to make modifications to his original design, and the basket size of the shopping cart increased as stores realized that their customers purchased more as its size increased. Today, most big-box stores and supermarkets have shopping carts for the convenience of the shoppers.
Rental
Shopping trolleys locked with a chain
In many countries, the customer has to pay a small deposit by inserting a coin, which is returned if and when the customer returns the cart to a designated cart parking point. The motivation behind the deposit systems is not theft deterrent since the trolley is worth significantly more than the deposit, however through this fee the retailer seeks to reduce the expense of their employees having to gather the carts that were not returned, and to avoid damages by runaway trolleys.
Although common in Europe, the deposit system has not been widely adopted in the United States, with the exception of some chains like Aldi, who require a $0.25 deposit.
The deposit varies, but usually coins of higher value, such as €1 or £1 are used. While the deposit systems usually are designed to accommodate a certain size of domestic coin, foreign coins, former currencies (like DM coins) or even appropriately folded pieces of cardboard can be used to unlock the trolleys as well.
Some retailers sell "trolley tokens" as an alternative to coins, often for charity.
A system similar to the shopping trolley deposit is also used for profit with luggage carts at many airports, where companies like Smarte Carte charge two or more dollars (U.S.) (or equivalent) for rental, and return a small token reward of a quarter (25 ¢) for returning carts to the other end of any dispenser machine.
Waste container
Explanation
Indoor bins
Indoor bins are traditionally kept in the kitchen to dispose of culinary excess such as fruit peelings or bottles, although there are also wastepaper baskets or wastebaskets which are used in offices to dispose of waste paper and other office refuse. Sometimes a bin can simply be referred to as "the garbage" or "the trash", in an example of a question, such as when one might ask "Where's the bin?" in an unfamiliar kitchen.
A wheelie bin in Berkshire, England
Most bins have heavy lids on the top to seal in the odor that garbage tends to emit. Though most have to be opened manually, indoor bins sometimes have pedals which open the lid when stomped on. Many bins are now water tight and need to be checked to stop leaking.
Indoor bins are traditionally lined with bin bags,which keeps the bin itself clean, facilitates the removal of the garbage and allows disposal with minimal contact to the contents. A common practice is to place multiple bags in each bin once a day so that one can empty the container by removing the bag and not have to replace it, speeding up the process.
Rubbish is usually kept in these receptacles until full, at which point they are transferred via the aforementioned bin bags to an outside receptacle such as a dumpster, or simply to the roadside.
Curbside dustbins
This says 'Thank You' on it and this indicates that the bin is saying a message of thanks to those whom have used it
The curbside dustbins usually consist of three types: trash cans (receptacles often made of tin, steel or plastic), Dumpsters (large receptacles similar to skips) and wheelie bins (light, usually plastic bins that are mobile). All of these are emptied by collectors, who will load the contents into a garbage truck and drive it to a landfill, incinerator or consuming crush facility to be disposed of.
Trash and recycling cans are often separated by type
In some areas there is also a recycling service, often with one or more dedicated bins intended to receive items that can be recycled into new products. These bins are separated into different categories (usually represented by colours) which determine what materials can be inserted into the bin. The most common materials used for recycling are paper, glass, metal, plastics and "green waste" (compostable material, either garden waste or food scraps or both).
A bin that needs to go in a bin
The contents of the bins are taken to a recycling plant to be processed, and there are various systems for recycling bin collection: single bin combined stream systems, multiple bin systems, and cyclic collections with different materials collected on different days.
An office waste paper bin
Bins in public areas
A wall mounted garbage container
Certain public areas such as parks have litter bins which are placed alongside paths frequently walked by visitors. This encourages people to avoid littering, which creates an unhealthy and aesthetically unpleasant social environment.
Bins in outdoor locations or other busy public areas are usually mounted to the ground or wall. This discourages theft, and also reduces vandalism by making it harder for someone to physically move or maneuver the bins; to spill their contents on the ground for example, or to use the bin as an effective weapon to hit people over the back with.
Since the 1995 terror bombings in France, public trashcans have largely been replaced by transparent plastic bags, in which it is difficult to hide a bomb.
In the past terrorists have left improvised explosive devices in bins. The bomb is much less likely to be spotted than an unattended bag and the metal bins provide extra shrapnel that injures people nearby when it detonates. For this reason there are no bins in most railway stations, most airports, and many shopping centres in the United Kingdom, or if they are provided they are just a bin bag hanging from a metal loop.
A Danish design company called Peoples ApS, have in cooperation with Swedish based Dynasafe AB, developed a "bombproof" bin suitable for public places. The bins were successfully tested at Saab Bofors test center, an independent third party, using the maximum amount of explosives specified for the particular design.
Apartment buildings often have two Dust flumes in which residents can dispose of their trash. These chutes usually lead to some large receptacle in the basement.
2008年11月19日星期三
Jumper dress
A jumper dress (or jumper in American English; pinafore dress, pinafore in British English) is a sleeveless, collarless dress intended to be worn over a blouse, shirt or sweater.
In British English, the term jumper describes a sweater. Also, in more formal British usage, a distinction is made between a pinafore dress and a pinafore, which, though a related garment, has an open back and is worn as an apron.
A sundress, like a jumper, is sleeveless and collarless. However it isn't worn over a blouse or sweater, and is of a distinctly different cut and fashion.
The apron dress may be viewed as a special case of the jumper dress. Typically, if the design of the dress is directly inspired by an apron (having a bib in front and ties in the back, for example), the garment is described as an apron dress.
The Viking Apron Dress (admittedly a construction based on conjecture from the Hedeby fragments), is of a design that is in line with a standard jumper dress. The name was probably chosen as the dress was sometimes worn on top of a sleeved dress.
In British English, the term jumper describes a sweater. Also, in more formal British usage, a distinction is made between a pinafore dress and a pinafore, which, though a related garment, has an open back and is worn as an apron.
A sundress, like a jumper, is sleeveless and collarless. However it isn't worn over a blouse or sweater, and is of a distinctly different cut and fashion.
The apron dress may be viewed as a special case of the jumper dress. Typically, if the design of the dress is directly inspired by an apron (having a bib in front and ties in the back, for example), the garment is described as an apron dress.
The Viking Apron Dress (admittedly a construction based on conjecture from the Hedeby fragments), is of a design that is in line with a standard jumper dress. The name was probably chosen as the dress was sometimes worn on top of a sleeved dress.
Babydoll
A babydoll is a short, sleeveless, loose fitting nightgown or negligee intended as nightwear for women. It usually consists of formed cups with an attached loose fitting skirt falling in length between the hips and the belly button. The garment is often trimmed with lace, ruffles, appliques, marabou fur, bows and ribbons, optionally with spaghetti straps. Sometimes it is made of sheer or translucent fabric like nylon or chiffon or silk. The garment's hemline is usually about six inches above the knee like a minidress and may have a scoop-neck. Usually panties are worn underneath.
It is said the name was popularized by the 1956 movie Baby Doll starring Carroll Baker in the title role, which essentially marked the beginning of the enduring popularity of the style for adults.
Short daywear dresses of a similar style are sometimes called babydoll dresses; the name is sometimes two words, baby doll, and sometimes hyphenated, baby-doll. Some styles are similar to what is worn by dolls in the form of infants, and by some infants; the gown is short enough that diapers are easily changed. However, there may be an alternative origin for the style, if we consider the lineage of lace-trimmed shortie bedjackets and bed-capes of the 1930s and 1940s.
It is now a highly eroticized item of adult apparel, often classified as a form of lingerie. When worn by an adult woman there is great contrast to when worn by an infant; the legs are fully displayed and some styles emphasize or deliberately expose the breasts as well. The gown is often sold as a set with matching panties as a typical babydoll is short enough that underwear is visible if worn. Styles of the same general length but not intended to emphasize sex appeal are sometimes called shortie nightgowns.
Babydolls became a prominent part of the "Kinderwhore" look during the early-to-mid 1990s due to the popularity of Riot Grrrl and Grunge music performers like Courtney Love and Kat Bjelland.
Babydolls are now available in a sufficiently wide variety of styles that many lingerie retailers consider babydolls a distinct department. Modern babydolls often vary considerably from the styles of the 1960s and 1970s. Babydoll negligees from the 1950s to the early 1980s are now collectible vintage items. Some babydolls open up in front and resemble more of a robe or peignoir.
Lingerie
Lingerie is a term for fashionable and alluring women's undergarments. It derives from the French word linge, "washables" — as in faire le linge, "do the laundry" — and ultimately from lin for washable linen, the fabric from which European undergarments were made before the general introduction of cotton from Egypt and then from India.
While the term in the French language applies to all undergarments for either gender, in English it is applied specifically to those women's undergarments designed to be visually appealing or erotic, typically incorporating materials such as Lycra, nylon (nylon tricot), polyester, satin, lace and/or silk and not applied to functional cotton undergarments. It is commonly pronounced in English with a faux French pronunciation (such as LONJ-er-ee in British pronunciation or lonj-er-AY in American pronunciation).
The concept of lingerie being visually appealing was a development of the later nineteenth century. Up through the first half of the 20th century women selected underwear for three major purposes: to alter their shape (first with corsets and later with girdles or bras), for reasons of hygiene, or for modesty. Women's underwear before the invention of the crinoline was often very large and bulky. As the 20th century progressed underwear became smaller and more form fitting. In the 1960s 'controversial' lingerie manufacturers such as Frederick's of Hollywood begin to glamorize lingerie and the idea of lingerie having a sexual appeal slowly developed.
The lingerie industry has expanded in the 21st century with designs that double as outerwear. The French refer to this as 'dessous-dessus' which basically means innerwear as outerwear. The boutique Faire Frou Frou, which is an antiquated phrase meaning "show it off", heralds this philosophy by categorizing lingerie as an accessory with details such as straps and lace trim that should be layered and shown as part of one's outerwear.
While the term in the French language applies to all undergarments for either gender, in English it is applied specifically to those women's undergarments designed to be visually appealing or erotic, typically incorporating materials such as Lycra, nylon (nylon tricot), polyester, satin, lace and/or silk and not applied to functional cotton undergarments. It is commonly pronounced in English with a faux French pronunciation (such as LONJ-er-ee in British pronunciation or lonj-er-AY in American pronunciation).
The concept of lingerie being visually appealing was a development of the later nineteenth century. Up through the first half of the 20th century women selected underwear for three major purposes: to alter their shape (first with corsets and later with girdles or bras), for reasons of hygiene, or for modesty. Women's underwear before the invention of the crinoline was often very large and bulky. As the 20th century progressed underwear became smaller and more form fitting. In the 1960s 'controversial' lingerie manufacturers such as Frederick's of Hollywood begin to glamorize lingerie and the idea of lingerie having a sexual appeal slowly developed.
The lingerie industry has expanded in the 21st century with designs that double as outerwear. The French refer to this as 'dessous-dessus' which basically means innerwear as outerwear. The boutique Faire Frou Frou, which is an antiquated phrase meaning "show it off", heralds this philosophy by categorizing lingerie as an accessory with details such as straps and lace trim that should be layered and shown as part of one's outerwear.
Market structure
The lingerie market at the turn of 21st century was driven by the advent of modern technologies and fabrics that help in designing innovative products such as laser-cut seamless bras and moulded T-shirt bras. Designers are putting greater emphasis on rich-looking fabrics, laces, embroideries and brighter, more daring colors.
The global lingerie market in 2003 was estimated at $29 billion. Bras accounted for 56 per cent while briefs represented 29 per cent of the lingerie market in 2005. The world’s largest lingerie manufacturer, Victoria's Secret, operates almost exclusively in North America. The European market is quite fragmented, with Triumph International and DB Apparel leading the market.
The lingerie market at the turn of 21st century was driven by the advent of modern technologies and fabrics that help in designing innovative products such as laser-cut seamless bras and moulded T-shirt bras. Designers are putting greater emphasis on rich-looking fabrics, laces, embroideries and brighter, more daring colors.
The global lingerie market in 2003 was estimated at $29 billion. Bras accounted for 56 per cent while briefs represented 29 per cent of the lingerie market in 2005. The world’s largest lingerie manufacturer, Victoria's Secret, operates almost exclusively in North America. The European market is quite fragmented, with Triumph International and DB Apparel leading the market.
Tunic
Greek tunic
The tunic was also worn by the ancient and Byzantine Greeks and is very similar to the chiton, which looked like a jacket. In Ancient Greece, a person's tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived. The tunics were either dyed with bright colors or bleached white.
Roman legionary tunic
Roman worker dressed in a tunic
Underneath his armor, the Roman legionary wore a (usually woollen) tunic. There is considerable debate today as to whether the typical Roman legionary's tunic was undyed or dyed red using madder dye; a number of works of art and written descriptions contemporary to the Roman Empire contradict each other on this point. Alternately, it is possible that Roman legionary officers wore red tunics, while rank-and-file soldiers wore undyed tunics.
The tunic originally worn by the Roman legionary consisted simply of a long piece of rectangular cloth sewed to an identical piece, with holes for the arms and head simply left unsewn. Later, it became fashionable for tunics to be produced with sleeves and worn with braccae. This was especially the case in relatively cold northern territories such as Britain and Germany where similar clothes were already in existence among the native populations.
Medieval tunic
Main article: Early medieval European dress
Germanic tunic of the 4th century found at the Thorsberg moor
Following the fall of the Roman empire, the tunic continued to be worn with varying sleeve and hem lengths throughout Europe during the Middle Ages. Often reaching the knees or ankles, it was usually worn over underclothes consisting of a shirt (usually hip-length or longer) and drawers (usually knee- or ankle-length pants related to braccae). It may be accompanied by hose. Wool and Linen were common fabrics used, though the wealthy sometimes wore fancy silk tunics, or a lesser fabric with silk trim.
Tunics worn during the Early Middle Ages often featured decorative embroidery or tablet-woven braids along the neck, hem and wrists. This was the case, for instance, with tunics worn by both rich and poor Anglo-Saxons before the Norman Conquest.
Young boy in tunic and trousers, 1830.
19th century
Around 1830, small boys began to be dressed in sashed or belted tunics over trousers, a fashion which replaced the earlier skeleton suit.
Modern tunic
In Western culture, its use continues primarily in a religious and uniform context. It is the primary garment worn by the clergy, and members of religious orders. The religious tunic reaches to the feet. It is also the name often given to the coat worn by military and police personnel, usually close-fitting. Tunics are commonly worn in Middle-Eastern cultures to this day. Light female garments, especially for sports or exercise, usually only coming down to mid-thigh, are also called tunics.
Sweater
Types and design
"Hot dog" Sweater
Navy "Wooly Pully" (woolen pullover), rib-knit.
Seaman's jumper, woolen, hand-knitted.
Look up Sweater inWiktionary, the free dictionary.
The term "sweater" is a catch-all for various types of garments. A fundamental division is between a cardigan (which opens in front) and a pullover (which does not). If the sweater has no sleeves, it is generally called a sweater vest or tank top.
A garment of this type was originally named a sweater becuase it was designed to absorb the sweat released from an individuals body, although this has now become a household name, and other styles of garment, (as named above) have kept the original term.
Sweater
Even within these groups, there is a great variety of design. All the various types of necklines are found, although the V-neck, turtleneck and the crew neck are the most popular. The waistline is typically at hip height, but can vary significantly. The sleeve length is likewise variable, ranging from small cap sleeves to short sleeves to three-quarter sleeves to full-length sleeves. The front seam of a cardigan allows for further possibilities, such as a surplice or a bolero jacket. All the hems may have various types of borders, such as picots, ribbing (knitting) and frills.
One advantage of sweaters is that they conform well to the body without requiring the tailoring as woven garments. For example, shaping such as darts, flares and gores — commonly found in woven blouses, a comparable garment — are rarely needed in sweaters, thanks to the Elasticity and drape of knitted fabrics. Even when such shaping is needed, it can be knit into the fabric itself, without requiring seams. However, this very elasticity makes it necessary to use more care when washing.
[edit] Nomenclature
If made of thick cotton, it is usually known as a sweatshirt. A hooded sweatshirt is commonly known as a hoodie. These items of clothing have been vilified in the United Kingdom as representative of a yob culture and banned from a number of shops and shopping centres.However hoodies showing affliation to subjects, groups, colleges (in the case of collegiate universities) and universities themselves are common wear from students in further education. A jumper with an open front fastened by buttons or a zipper, is called a cardigan. A hockey sweater was, in the early days of ice hockey, recognisable as what people in the 2000s would call a sweater, but has since evolved into a sort of jersey. Thus, in modern-day North American usage, the shirt of an ice-hockey player's uniform is traditionally called a sweater, regardless of the style.
In British English, a sweater is called a pullover, sweater, jersey, or jumper, this last term being the most common name in British English and Australian English. In South African English, a sweater is always called a jersey. Sleeveless pullovers are known in American English and Australian English as vests or sweater vests. In British English they are known as tank tops.
Customary wear
Thin sweaters may be worn tucked in to the waistband of trousers; but otherwise, men's sweaters are to be worn untucked.
Sweaters are a versatile item of clothing, which can be worn on top of almost any outfit. Sports sweaters, especially hoodies, are often worn on tops of sports kit which travelling to or from a sports ground. As a part of the preppy style sweaters are worn with a dress shirt underneath (and optionally a tie), which has the advantage of allowing the wearer to have the option of removing the sweater when it is uncomfortably warm and still look presentable in many situations with only the shirt. In the late 20th century the sweater increasingly came to be worn as an alternative to a shirt when finer materials made them more comfortable next to the skin.
Some women's sweaters are meant to be worn belted; sometimes, a belt or drawstring is knitted into the sweater itself.
In ice hockey, the uniforms that present day players wear are sometimes referred to as "sweaters" although they more resemble the jerseys worn in other sports. This is because original uniforms were simply sweaters with the team's logo stiched on the front. However, as technology changed, so did the uniforms as actual sweaters absorbed too much moisture and became weighed down and bulky throughout the course of a game.
"Hot dog" Sweater
Navy "Wooly Pully" (woolen pullover), rib-knit.
Seaman's jumper, woolen, hand-knitted.
Look up Sweater inWiktionary, the free dictionary.
The term "sweater" is a catch-all for various types of garments. A fundamental division is between a cardigan (which opens in front) and a pullover (which does not). If the sweater has no sleeves, it is generally called a sweater vest or tank top.
A garment of this type was originally named a sweater becuase it was designed to absorb the sweat released from an individuals body, although this has now become a household name, and other styles of garment, (as named above) have kept the original term.
Sweater
Even within these groups, there is a great variety of design. All the various types of necklines are found, although the V-neck, turtleneck and the crew neck are the most popular. The waistline is typically at hip height, but can vary significantly. The sleeve length is likewise variable, ranging from small cap sleeves to short sleeves to three-quarter sleeves to full-length sleeves. The front seam of a cardigan allows for further possibilities, such as a surplice or a bolero jacket. All the hems may have various types of borders, such as picots, ribbing (knitting) and frills.
One advantage of sweaters is that they conform well to the body without requiring the tailoring as woven garments. For example, shaping such as darts, flares and gores — commonly found in woven blouses, a comparable garment — are rarely needed in sweaters, thanks to the Elasticity and drape of knitted fabrics. Even when such shaping is needed, it can be knit into the fabric itself, without requiring seams. However, this very elasticity makes it necessary to use more care when washing.
[edit] Nomenclature
If made of thick cotton, it is usually known as a sweatshirt. A hooded sweatshirt is commonly known as a hoodie. These items of clothing have been vilified in the United Kingdom as representative of a yob culture and banned from a number of shops and shopping centres.However hoodies showing affliation to subjects, groups, colleges (in the case of collegiate universities) and universities themselves are common wear from students in further education. A jumper with an open front fastened by buttons or a zipper, is called a cardigan. A hockey sweater was, in the early days of ice hockey, recognisable as what people in the 2000s would call a sweater, but has since evolved into a sort of jersey. Thus, in modern-day North American usage, the shirt of an ice-hockey player's uniform is traditionally called a sweater, regardless of the style.
In British English, a sweater is called a pullover, sweater, jersey, or jumper, this last term being the most common name in British English and Australian English. In South African English, a sweater is always called a jersey. Sleeveless pullovers are known in American English and Australian English as vests or sweater vests. In British English they are known as tank tops.
Customary wear
Thin sweaters may be worn tucked in to the waistband of trousers; but otherwise, men's sweaters are to be worn untucked.
Sweaters are a versatile item of clothing, which can be worn on top of almost any outfit. Sports sweaters, especially hoodies, are often worn on tops of sports kit which travelling to or from a sports ground. As a part of the preppy style sweaters are worn with a dress shirt underneath (and optionally a tie), which has the advantage of allowing the wearer to have the option of removing the sweater when it is uncomfortably warm and still look presentable in many situations with only the shirt. In the late 20th century the sweater increasingly came to be worn as an alternative to a shirt when finer materials made them more comfortable next to the skin.
Some women's sweaters are meant to be worn belted; sometimes, a belt or drawstring is knitted into the sweater itself.
In ice hockey, the uniforms that present day players wear are sometimes referred to as "sweaters" although they more resemble the jerseys worn in other sports. This is because original uniforms were simply sweaters with the team's logo stiched on the front. However, as technology changed, so did the uniforms as actual sweaters absorbed too much moisture and became weighed down and bulky throughout the course of a game.
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